La medicalización del malestar en la mujer. Una valoración crítica / Medicalization of disease in women. A critical appraisal

La fisiología de la mujer ha sido históricamente asociada a la enfermedad mental, dando como resultado una visión biologicista, androcéntrica y patriarcal de la locura y, en consecuencia, a prácticas clínicas desiguales. Actualmente, se siguen reproduciendo estas desigualdades, viéndose reflejado en el mayor número de diagnósticos de trastorno mental en mujeres y la mayor prescripción de psicofármacos a estas. El objetivo de este artículo es realizar una valoración crítica sobre la estructura que sostiene los constructos en salud mental. Para ello, partimos de los antecedentes históricos con el fin de entender el legado patriarcal en el ámbito de la medicina, en concreto en la salud mental, para acabar haciendo un repaso de los sesgos sexistas que existen en dicho campo. Por último, se concluye la necesidad de que exista un cambio de paradigma que ponga de manifiesto los condicionantes de género que existen y que puedan explicar esta alta prevalencia de trastorno mental y mayor prescripción de psicofármacos en la mujer. (AU)

Historically, the physiology of women has been associated with mental illness, resulting in a biologic, androcentric, and patriarchal view of insanity, and, consequently, unequal clinical practices. Today, these inequalities still exist, as we can see reflected in the higher number of mental health diagnoses in women and the higher prescription of psychotropic drugs for them. The objective of this article is to make a critical assessment of the structure that supports constructs in mental health. To do this, we provide an historical background in order to examine the patriarchal legacy in the field of medicine, specifically in mental health. After that, the sexist biases that exist in this field are reviewed. Finally, we conclude with the need for a paradigm shift to reveal the existing gender conditioning factors that can explain this high prevalence of mental disorder and greater prescription of psychotropic drugs in women. (AU)

[Argentinian women and the uses of drugs: A sociohistorical analysis of female drug use in Argentina (1860-1930)]. / Mujeres argentinas y usos de drogas: análisis sociohistórico del uso femenino de sustancias psicoactivas en Argentina (1860-1930).

This article describes cases presented by experts from the legislative and medical-legal fields regarding the use of psychoactive substances among Argentinian women from 1878 to 1930. Background information is presented regarding the relationship between women and the use different drugs, medical interventions on the female body where psychoactive substances were used are analyzed, and experts' descriptions of cases of female drug users are detailed. Experts' discourses during this period did not attempt to comprehend the specificities of female consumption, but were rather used to position the issue of drug use as a social problem. This was done using three prototypes: the victim of a sick husband; the prostitute who encourages drug use among the weak in spirit (natural-born criminals); and the virtuous young woman who succumbs to drug addiction in spite of her father's rule. Each figure reinforces the need for state intervention and increased social control.

Este trabajo describe casos expuestos por expertos de los ámbitos legislativo y médico-legal periodístico, en los que se reporta el consumo de sustancias psicoactivas por parte de mujeres de Argentina, entre 1878 y 1930. Se presentan antecedentes sobre mujeres y usos de distintos fármacos, se analizan las intervenciones médicas que utilizan sustancias psicoactivas sobre el cuerpo femenino, y se detallan los casos de mujeres consumidoras desde las miradas expertas. En este periodo, los discursos expertos no buscaron comprender la especificidad femenina del consumo, sino promover el tema drogas como un problema. Esto se produce utilizando tres prototipos: la víctima de un marido enfermo, la prostituta que envicia a los débiles de espíritu (criminal nata), y la joven virtuosa que contraviene la ley del padre y sucumbe en la toxicomanía. Cada figura refuerza la necesidad de intervención estatal y control social.

Mujeres argentinas y usos de drogas: análisis sociohistórico del uso femenino de sustancias psicoactivas en Argentina (1860-1930) / Argentinian women and the uses of drugs: A sociohistorical analysis of female drug use in Argentina (1860-1930)

RESUMEN Este trabajo describe casos expuestos por expertos de los ámbitos legislativo y médico-legal periodístico, en los que se reporta el consumo de sustancias psicoactivas por parte de mujeres de Argentina, entre 1878 y 1930. Se presentan antecedentes sobre mujeres y usos de distintos fármacos, se analizan las intervenciones médicas que utilizan sustancias psicoactivas sobre el cuerpo femenino, y se detallan los casos de mujeres consumidoras desde las miradas expertas. En este periodo, los discursos expertos no buscaron comprender la especificidad femenina del consumo, sino promover el tema drogas como un problema. Esto se produce utilizando tres prototipos: la víctima de un marido enfermo, la prostituta que envicia a los débiles de espíritu (criminal nata), y la joven virtuosa que contraviene la ley del padre y sucumbe en la toxicomanía. Cada figura refuerza la necesidad de intervención estatal y control social.

ABSTRACT This article describes cases presented by experts from the legislative and medical-legal fields regarding the use of psychoactive substances among Argentinian women from 1878 to 1930. Background information is presented regarding the relationship between women and the use of different drugs, medical interventions on the female body where psychoactive substances were used are analyzed, and experts' descriptions of cases of female drug users are detailed. Experts' discourses during this period did not attempt to comprehend the specificities of female consumption but were rather used to position the issue of drug use as a social problem. This was done using three prototypes: the victim of a sick husband; the prostitute who encourages drug use among the weak in spirit (natural-born criminals); and the virtuous young woman who succumbs to drug addiction in spite of her father's rule. Each figure reinforces the need for state intervention and increased social control.

Humane treatment versus means of control: coercive measures in Norwegian high-security psychiatry, 1895-1978.

This article analyses the use of coercive measures in two national institutions for high-security psychiatry in Norway - Kriminalasylet (Criminal Asylum) and Reitgjerdet - during the period 1895-1978. Historical study of coercion in psychiatry is a fruitful approach to new insight into the moral and ethical considerations within the institutions. We approach the topic through a qualitative study of patient case files and ward reports from the institutions' archives, as well as a comprehensive quantification of the coercive measures used. The data show shifting considerations of humane treatment and changes in the respect for human dignity in the institutions' practices. They also show that technological developments, such as the introduction of new psychopharmaceuticals, did not necessarily lead to higher standards of treatment.

History of Psychopharmacology.

We live in an age of psychopharmacology. One in six persons currently takes a psychotropic drug. These drugs have profoundly shaped our scientific and cultural understanding of psychiatric disease. By way of a historical review, we try to make sense of psychiatry's dependency on psychiatric drugs in the care of patients. Modern psychopharmacology began in 1950 with the synthesis of chlorpromazine. Over the course of the next 50 years, the psychiatric understanding and treatment of mental illness radically changed. Psychotropic drugs played a major part in these changes as state hospitals closed and psychotherapy gave way to drug prescriptions. Our review suggests that the success of psychopharmacology was not the consequence of increasingly more effective drugs for discrete psychiatric diseases. Instead, a complex mix of political economic realities, pharmaceutical marketing, basic science advances, and changes in the mental health-care system have led to our current infatuation with psychopharmacology.

The Domino Effect: Ed Domino's early studies of Psychoactive Drugs.

University of Michigan Pharmacology Professor Ed Domino is an expert in the field of neuropsychopharmacology. For over six decades, Dr. Domino has made many contributions to our understanding of psychoactive drugs, but is most well-known for his role in the development of ketamine anesthesia. This article covers the story behind this discovery, along with many other fascinating personal and professional anecdotes, all of which provide insight into the career of a remarkable scientist.

The DARK Side of Total Synthesis: Strategies and Tactics in Psychoactive Drug Production.

Humankind has used and abused psychoactive drugs for millennia. Formally, a psychoactive drug is any agent that alters cognition and mood. The term "psychotropic drug" is neutral and describes the entire class of substrates, licit and illicit, of interest to governmental drug policy. While these drugs are prescribed for issues ranging from pain management to anxiety, they are also used recreationally. In fact, the current opioid epidemic is the deadliest drug crisis in American history. While the topic is highly politicized with racial, gender, and socioeconomic elements, there is no denying the toll drug mis- and overuse is taking on this country. Overdose, fueled by opioids, is the leading cause of death for Americans under 50 years of age, killing ca. 64,000 people in 2016. From a chemistry standpoint, the question is in what ways, if any, did organic chemists contribute to this problem? In this targeted review, we provide brief historical accounts of the main classes of psychoactive drugs and discuss several foundational total syntheses that ultimately provide the groundwork for producing these molecules in academic, industrial, and clandestine settings.

A Brief History of Lithium Treatment in Psychiatry.

The history of lithium as a psychiatric medication is marked by its serendipitous discovery, its lengthy path to US Food and Drug Administration approval, and controversy surrounding its current status in bipolar disorder treatment. Without doubt, the discovery of lithium as a psychotropic agent forever changed the course of psychiatry. The drug's fascinating, and sometimes contentious, history is reviewed here.

Burundanga: mito o realidad por conocer / Burundanga: a myth or reality still to be learned

No disponible

Charcot, Mitchell and Lees: neurology free thinkers and their experiences of psychoactive drugs.

Three world-famous neurologists, Charcot and Mitchell, in the 19th century, and Lees, in this century, all of whom had great scientific curiosity, experimented with the psychoactive drugs hashish, mescal and yagé, respectively, in an attempt to increase their knowledge of neurological diseases and how the brain works.

Charcot, Mitchell and Lees: neurology free thinkers and their experiences of psychoactive drugs / Charcot, Mitchell e Lees: livres-pensadores da neurologia e suas experiências com drogas psico-ativas

ABSTRACT Three world-famous neurologists, Charcot and Mitchell, in the 19th century, and Lees, in this century, all of whom had great scientific curiosity, experimented with the psychoactive drugs hashish, mescal and yagé, respectively, in an attempt to increase their knowledge of neurological diseases and how the brain works.

RESUMO Três mundialmente famosos neurologistas, Charcot e Mitchell, no século XIX, e Lees neste século, tiveram eles mesmos, experiências com drogas psico-ativas, com haxixe, mescalina e yagé, respectivamente, demonstrando a sua intensa curiosidade científica, na tentativa de aprimorar o seu conhecimento da função cerebral e das doenças neurológicas.

[The origin of a differentiated neuropsychopharmacotherapy for children and adolescents: an analysis of psycho- and neuropharmacology in the 1940s and 50s]. / Die Anfänge einer differenzierten Neuropsychopharmakotherapie bei Kindern und Jugendlichen. Untersuchung zur Psycho- und Neuropharmakologie in den 40er und 50er Jahren des vorigen Jahrhunderts.

Objective: The origin of a differentiated approach to neuropsychopharmacotherapy in children and adolescents can be traced back to the 1940s and 50s. Certain clinical disorders in the range of psychiatry and neurology were treated with a multiplicity of substances. Method: We conducted an exclusive screening of 700 medical records of patients under 18 years of age from a psychiatric university hospital in Jena (from 1942­1945) and 89 files of children who attended Trüper's approved school in Jena between 1946 and 1954. Results: Differentiated therapies were administered for ailments such as acute anxiety states, erethism, hyperkinetic syndrome, enuresis, migraine, sleep disturbance, epilepsy, Sydenham's chorea, spasticity, neuralgia, neuritis, dizziness, pain syndrome, tetany, and syphilis. Conclusions: Interventions for mental disorders were relatively unspecific before the development of neuroleptic and antidepressant agents. During this time, multitudes of treatments were implemented for neurovegetative disorders, psychoneuroses, and different kinds of psychopathies. Barbiturates were administered in both pure and mixed forms. Additionally, since mental disorders were frequently caused by physical disorders, they could be eliminated or improved by the use of chemotherapeutics. Other somatic therapies like convulsive shock treatment with camphor and cardiazol, malaria treatments, hypoglycemic shock therapy, and electroconvulsive treatment have been applied in patients with schizophrenia.

Making Sense of the 'Chemical Revolution'. Patients' Voices on the Introduction of Neuroleptics in the 1950s.

The so-called chemical revolution has produced a vast historiographical corpus. Yet the patient's voice remains surprisingly absent from these stories. Based on the archives of the Institut de Psychiatrie (Brussels), this paper traces the introduction of Largactil as recounted in patient letters, physician records and nurse notes. The paper thus contributes to the history of therapies from below, but also participates in the historiographical debate about whether the introduction of neuroleptics can indeed be considered a revolution.

What the History of Drugs Can Teach Us About the Current Cannabis Legalization Process: Unfinished Business.

Over time, there have been considerable changes in the variety, availability, production, distribution, and use and user(s) of psychoactive substances, the meaning of substance use and its impact on users and their social or physical environment(s). This article reviews the mechanisms of introduction of psychoactive substances such as alcohol, tobacco, coffee, tea and cannabis to populations and communities that did not have them before. It considers the historical tension between early adopters who greet new substances with various levels of enthusiasm in their eagerness to enjoy what they believe to be the benefits of using these substances, and those focused on what they believe to be the negative aspects of use, who decry these new substances with horror. With more nonusers than users in the population, social policies tend to be directed at preventing, restricting, or punishing selected use, users and .drugs., using controls and interventions such regulation, incarceration, death sentence, treatment, prevention, legalization, taxation, among others. Whatever their intent or wished-for impact, all had consequences that produced additional, unplanned for, and (often) negative effects. This paper will consider some of these sequences as they occurred historically with other substances in light of the current shift to legalization and normalization of cannabis, noting the mechanisms of use, controls, and consequences of some types of formal interventions and give some attention to how and what we can learn from our experiences in order to plan ahead and become better prepared to successfully deal with the 'unexpecteds' of that well-known 'hell' paved with good intentions.